Tuesday, October 12, 2010

Progress of Industry

Steamboats and Ships
- Robert Fulton proved the value of his smoke-belching invention the Clermont Steamboat.

Brunel's work:
- The Great Western (the first built specifically for oceanic service)
- The Great Britain (the first large iron ship in the world and the first to be screw propelled)
- The Great Eastern (the largest ship constructed in the 19th century)

Printing and Photography
- Communications were equally transformed in the 19th century
- The steam engine helped to mechanize and thus to speed up the processes of papermaking and printing
- The first photograph was taken by the French physicist J.N Niepce
- George Eastman manufactured camera and celluloid photographic film

Telegraphs and Telephones
- Electricity made possible the great innovations in communications technology
- Samuel F.B Morse device the signaling code that was later used throughout the world
- Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone
- By the end of the century, Guglielmo Marconi had transmitted messages over many miles in Britain

Importance of studying history of science

If we study history of science we massively understand today's world and perhaps even helping to shape it. Studying history gives you knowledge and critical perspective, and in order to honor and give credit to to the people who contributed a lot in the field of science!

Famous Women Scientist

Early Civilization

MERIT PTAH- AN EGYPTIAN PHYSICIAN WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE FIELD OF MEDICINE
AGLAONIKE- STUDY NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN ANCIENT GREECE, WHO PREDICTED ECLIPSES
THEANO- MATHEMATICIAN AND PHYSICIAN WHO WAS A PUPIL OF PHYTAGORAS
MERY THE JEWESS- IS CREDITED WITH INVENTING SEVERAL CHEMICAL INSTRUMENT INCLUDING THE DOUBLE BOILER AND A TYPE OF STILL
HYPORTIA OF ALEXANDRIA - WROTE TEXTS ON GEOMETRY, ALGEBRA AND ASTRONOMY AND IS CREDITED INVENTORS INCLUDING A HYDROMETER AN ASTROLABE AND AN INSTRUMENT FOR DISTILLING WATER

Scientific Revolution(16TH - 17TH Centuries)

MARGARET CAVENDISH - ARISTOCRATIC WOMAN. WROTE NUMBER OF VERSE ON SCIENTIFIC MATTERS INCLUDING OBSERVATIONS UPON EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
MARIA WINKELMANN - MADE SOME ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTIONS INCLUDING THE DISCOVERY OF A COMET

Industrial Revolution (18TH Century)

EMILIE AU CHATELET- TRANSLATED NEWTONS PRINCIPLE INTO FRENCH AND DEDUCED THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
MARIE ANNE PIERRETTE PALIZE - BEST KNOWN SCIENTIFIC WIVES
CAROLINE HERCHEL- DISCOVERED EIGHT COMETS
ELTEN SWALLOW RICHARDS - CALLED FOR THE "CHRISTENING OF A NEW SCIENCE" "AEKOLOGY" (ECOLOGY).

Nineteenth Century

Mary Fairfax Somerville-She studied mathematics and astronomy, and was the second woman scientist to receive recognition in the United Kingdom after Caroline Herschel.
Catherine Elizabeth Benson-was the first woman to earn a college bachelor's deg
Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin-American astronomer who in 1925 was first to show that the Sun is mainly composed of hydrogen contradicting accepted wisdom at the time.

Monday, October 11, 2010

Why Science Bloom in Renaissance Period

Because of the establishment of academies. and Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus, Galileo, Newton and René Descartes.The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy. With the publication of Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica, a new confidence was placed in the role of dissection, observation, and a mechanistic vw of anatomy.

Friday, October 8, 2010

Who made a major major invention in the 20th century?

MOBILE PHONE

Martin Cooper



Born	December 26, 1928 (1928-12-26) (age 81) Chicago, Illinois, USA
Residence	Chicago, Illinois, USA
Nationality	American
Education	Illinois Institute of Technology
Occupation	Inventor Entrepreneur
Employer	CEO & founder of ArrayComm
Known for	Inventing the handheld cellular Mobile phone
Title	Engineer

Mobiles phones have intruded in our lives and have made their own unique stand. Once considered as a luxury is now the thing closest to our hearts. Mobiles have even replaced the wristwatches people now find it easier to see the time in their mobile phones. Mobiles phones have become the personal dairies for many. A mobile phone acts like your mother and wakes you up in the morning; it is your reminder that keeps you updated of all your meetings and important events. Calculator and notes section has made the mobile phone your personal assistant. Mobile phones because of their varied multi-function capabilities have replaced many other devices.

When you are stressed and need some music to soothe your soul then just turning on your music player on your mobile will work for you. Now a day's most mobile phones have a music player or an FM receiver. This will ensure that you won't get bored at any point of time. Phones have also popularized the camera feature. Now point-and-shoot imaging has been rediscovered with the mobile phone camera. Mobile phones now offer expandable memory features. This has enabled the user to store multiple files and multimedia in his phone. Phones have even introduced a hard disk in them and this has increased the memory capabilities of the phone tremendously. Mobile phones now flaunt up to 8 GB of memory expansion.

Accessing the internet has become mandatory in many professions. Now mobile phone is also replacing the laptop by enabling internet access through the mobile phone. This has given way to service providers to provide various internet services. Mobile banking and stocks updates have become a common affair for the mobile phone user. Mobile phones are still a style statement to many; this depends upon the kind of phone you purchase.

Mobile phones are available below one grand and the cost runs up to tens of thousands. There are diamond-studded phones which add to the class and status of a person. Mobiles phones are best know for their communication purpose, calling from anywhere anytime and going transnational has enabled increased communication among people. The lowering of call rates in only helping and this technology is reaching the rural areas to enable higher communication in them.

Mobile phone has popularized the messaging service and this has made it easy for people to send across messages and nearly wiping out the traditional lettering system. Thus mobile phone has intervened in our lives in a positive manner and continues to make it better.
There are many websites are present on the net where you can buy mobile phone and get the discount also.

Pascal's triangle

is a triangular array of the binomial coefficients in a triangle. It is named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal in much of the Western world, although other mathematicians studied it centuries before him in Greece, India, Persia, China, and Italy.^[1]

The rows of Pascal's triangle are conventionally enumerated starting with row n = 0 at the top. The entries in each row are numbered from the left beginning with k = 0 and are usually staggered relative to the numbers in the adjacent rows. A simple construction of the triangle proceeds in the following manner. On row 0, write only the number 1. Then, to construct the elements of following rows, add the number directly above and to the left with the number directly above and to the right to find the new value. If either the number to the right or left is not present, substitute a zero in its place. For example, the first number in the first row is 0 + 1 = 1, whereas the numbers 1 and 3 in the third row are added to produce the number 4 in the fourth row.

This construction is related to the binomial coefficients by Pascal's rule, which states that if

$(x+y)^n=\sum_{k=0}^n{n \choose k}x^{n-k}y^{k}$

then

${n \choose k} = {n-1 \choose k-1} + {n-1 \choose k}$

for any nonnegative integer n and any integer k between 0 and n.^[2]

Pascal's triangle has higher dimensional generalizations. The three-dimensional version is called Pascal's pyramid or Pascal's tetrahedron, while the general versions are called Pascal's simplices.

The set of numbers that form Pascal's triangle were well known before Pascal. But, Pascal developed many applications of it and was the first one to organize all the information together in his treatise, Traité du triangle arithmétique (1653). The numbers originally arose from Hindu studies of combinatorics and binomial numbers and the Greeks' study of figurate numbers.^[3]

The earliest explicit depictions of a triangle of binomial coefficients occur in the 10th century in commentaries on the Chandas Shastra, an Ancient Indian book on Sanskrit prosody written by Pingala between the 5th and 2nd century BC. While Pingala's work only survives in fragments, the commentator Halayudha, around 975, used the triangle to explain obscure references to Meru-prastaara, the "Staircase of Mount Meru". It was also realised that the shallow diagonals of the triangle sum to the Fibonacci numbers.

At around the same time, it was discussed in Persia (Iran) by the Persian mathematician, Al-Karaji (953–1029).^[4] It was later repeated by the Persian poet-astronomer-mathematician Omar Khayyám (1048–1131); thus the triangle is referred to as the Khayyam triangle in Iran. Several theorems related to the triangle were known, including the binomial theorem. Khayyam used a method of finding nth roots based on the binomial expansion, and therefore on the binomial coefficients.

In 13th century, Yang Hui (1238–98) presented the arithmetic triangle that is the same as Pascal's triangle. Pascal's triangle is called Yang Hui's triangle in China. The "Yang Hui's triangle" was known in China in the upper half of the 11th century by the Chinese mathemtician Jia Xian (1010-1070).

Petrus Apianus (1495–1552) published the triangle on the frontispiece of his book on business calculations in the 16th century. This is the first record of the triangle in Europe.

In Italy, it is referred to as Tartaglia's triangle, named for the Italian algebraist Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (1500–77). Tartaglia is credited with the general formula for solving cubic polynomials, (which may be really from Scipione del Ferro but was published by Gerolamo Cardano 1545).

Traité du triangle arithmétique (Treatise on Arithmetical Triangle) has been published posthumously in 1665. In the Treatise Pascal collected several results then known about the triangle, and employed them to solve problems in probability theory. The triangle was later named after Pascal by Pierre Raymond de Montmort (1708) who called it "Table de M. Pascal pour les combinaisons" (French: Table of Mr. Pascal for combinations) and Abraham de Moivre (1730) who called it "Triangulum Arithmeticum PASCALIANUM" (Latin: Pascal's Arithmetic Triangle), which became the modern Western name

QUASAR

A quasi-stellar radio source ("quasar") is a very energetic and distant galaxy with an active galactic nucleus. They are the most luminous objects in the universe. Quasars were first identified as being high redshift sources of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves and visible light, that were point-like, similar to stars, rather than extended sources similar to galaxies.

While there was initially some controversy over the nature of these objects—as recently as the early 1980s, there was no clear consensus as to their nature—there is now a scientific consensus that a quasar is a compact region in the center of a massive galaxy surrounding its central supermassive black hole. Its size is 10–10,000 times the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole. The quasar is powered by an accretion disc around the black hole.

Quasars show a very high redshift, which is an effect of the expansion of the universe between the quasar and the Earth. They are the most luminous, powerful, and energetic objects known in the universe. They tend to inhabit the very centers of active young galaxies and can emit up to a thousand times the energy output of the Milky Way. When combined with Hubble's law, the implication of the redshift is that the quasars are very distant—and thus, it follows, objects from much earlier in the universe's history. The most luminous quasars radiate at a rate that can exceed the output of average galaxies, equivalent to one trillion (10¹²) suns. This radiation is emitted across the spectrum, almost equally, from X-rays to the far-infrared with a peak in the ultraviolet-optical bands, with some quasars also being strong sources of radio emission and of gamma-rays. In early optical images, quasars looked like single points of light (i.e. point sources), indistinguishable from stars, except for their peculiar spectra. With infrared telescopes and the Hubble Space Telescope, the "host galaxies" surrounding the quasars have been identified in some cases.^[2] These galaxies are normally too dim to be seen against the glare of the quasar, except with these special techniques. Most quasars cannot be seen with small telescopes, but 3C 273, with an average apparent magnitude of 12.9, is an exception. At a distance of 2.44 billion light-years, it is one of the most distant objects directly observable with amateur equipment.

Some quasars display changes in luminosity which are rapid in the optical range and even more rapid in the X-rays. This implies that they are small (Solar System sized or less) because an object cannot change faster than the time it takes light to travel from one end to the other; but relativistic beaming of jets pointed nearly directly toward us explains the most extreme cases. The highest redshift known for a quasar (as of December 2007^[update]) is 6.43, which corresponds to a proper distance of approximately 28 billion light-years from Earth.

Quasars are believed to be powered by accretion of material into supermassive black holes in the nuclei of distant galaxies, making these luminous versions of the general class of objects known as active galaxies. Since light cannot escape the super massive black holes that are at the centre of quasars, the escaping energy is actually generated outside the event horizon by gravitational stresses and immense friction on the incoming material. Large central masses (10⁶ to 10⁹ Solar masses) have been measured in quasars using 'reverberation mapping'. Several dozen nearby large galaxies, with no sign of a quasar nucleus, have been shown to contain a similar central black hole in their nuclei, so it is thought that all large galaxies have one, but only a small fraction emit powerful radiation and so are seen as quasars. The matter accreting onto the black hole is unlikely to fall directly in, but will have some angular momentum around the black hole that will cause the matter to collect in an accretion disc. Quasars may also be ignited or re-ignited from normal galaxies when infused with a fresh source of matter. In fact, it has been theorized that a quasar could form as the Andromeda galaxy collides with our own Milky Way galaxy in approximately 3–5 billion years.